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Ham Radio
(See also: Software-Defined Radio)
Amateur radio, also known as ham radio, is an old hobby that has origins as far back as the late 1800's. It was formalized as a hobby in the early 20th century. It is an over-regulated piece of shit, but what isn't now a days.
Amateur radio operators, known as hams, make contacts all over the world. Activities include DXing (making as many distant contacts as possible), rag-chewing (having long, friendly conversations with other hams on the air), contesting (participating in contests that involve making specific kinds of contacts under specific conditions), EMCOMM (emergency preparedness exercises for when SHTF), QRP (making distant contacts with as little power possible), designing and building equipment, and many others. Hams operate using a variety of modes, including phone (voice over radio, usually FM or SSB), CW (Morse code), and digital (computers sending data over the radio).
Although the barrier to entry is higher than most other hobbies, ham radio is a hobby with seemingly infinite depth, that can provide a literal lifetime of enjoyment.
Licensing
Being an over-regulated piece of shit, in order to fully participate in (transmit) ham radio, you'll need a license, which you get by passing one or more exams. The licensing process varies by country.
Testing In The US
Element 2 Technician 35 out of 426 questions from this pool
| Frequencies | 80m | 40m | 15m | 10m | 6m | 2m | 1.25m | 70cm | 33cm | 23cm |
Element 3 General 35 out of 462 questions from this pool
| Frequencies | 2200m | 630m | 160m | 80m | 60m | 40m | 30m | 20m | 17m |
| 15m | 12m | 10m | 6m | 2m | 1.25m | 70cm | 33cm | 23cm |
Element 4 Amateur Extra 50 out of 712 questions from this pool
| Frequencies | 2200m | 630m | 160m | 80m | 60m | 40m | 30m | 20m | 17m |
| 15m | 12m | 10m | 6m | 2m | 1.25m | 70cm | 33cm | 23cm |
Find Testing Locations In The US
Get Your FCC Registration Number
You will need either an FCC Registration or Social Security number in order to take the exam. It is not necessary to register beforehand with the FCC, but it will speed things along if you bring the paperwork.
FCC License Data Search
For a fee of $15 USD you may take one or all three tests in one sitting at no additional charge. If you fail a test, you may spend an additional $15 USD to retake it. Your license is good for 10 years with a 2 year grace period to retest after expiration. You are no longer required to know Morse code for any of these tests.
FCC Part 97 The US Amateur Rulebook
Testing in Canada
The Amateur Radio Service in Canada is regulated by Innovation, Science, and Economic Development Canada (ISED, known until 2015 as Industry Canada), in accordance with the Radiocommunication Act.
An Amateur Radio Operator Certificate is required to operate an amateur radio station in Canada. A certificate is issued when an individual obtains a score of 70% or higher on the Amateur Radio Basic Qualification exam. The following are the qualifications available to Canadian amateurs:
Basic Qualification: Access to all Amateur frequencies above 30MHz. Must obtain a mark of 70% on a 100-question multiple-choice test on theory, practice, and regulations. The question bank is available here.
Basic with Honours Qualification: Same as Basic, but with access to all Amateur frequencies. Obtained by scoring 80% on the Basic exam.
Morse Code Qualification: Access to all Amateur frequencies (notice that this one doesn't do anything for you if you passed the basic exam with an 80). Must demonstrate the ability to send and receive Morse code at 5 words per minute. Passing score is 100% (up to 5 mistakes).
Advanced Qualification: Access to all Amateur frequencies, higher power, ability to set up automatic stations like repeaters, ability to operate remote stations (i.e. over the internet), ability to design and build transmitting equipment. Obtained by scoring 70% on the 50-question, multiple-choice Amateur Radio Advanced Qualification exam. The question bank is available here.
The Basic Qualification must be obtained first in order to be issued an Amateur Radio Operator Certificate and a call sign, but the other qualifications may be obtained in any order.
The United States and Canada have a reciprocal operating agreement, so Canadian amateurs may operate in the U.S. and vice-versa without any paperwork or permit. Amateurs must follow the regulations of the country they are in, and not exceed the privileges they are licensed for in their home country. U.S. amateurs operating in Canada must identify with their FCC call sign, followed by 'mobile' (voice) or '/' (CW), followed by the call sign prefix of the province they are operating in. For example, "W1AW mobile VE9" in New Brunswick. Likewise, Canadian amateurs must do the same with their ISED call sign when operating in the U.S.
Citizens of CEPT member countries may operate in Canada, so long as they have been issued a CEPT permit. Unlike U.S. amateurs operating in Canada, CEPT-country amateurs must identify with the call sign prefix of the province they are in first, followed by their own call sign, for example "VE9/G5LK"
One difference between Canadian and U.S. regulations is that in Canada, there is no mandatory band plan.
The national association for amateur radio in Canada is Radio Amateurs of Canada (RAC).
Theory
Maths You Should Know
Ohm's Law
| Solve For Watts | Amp2 x Ohm | Volt2 / Ohm | Volt x Amp |
| Solve For Volts | Amp x Ohm | √Watt x Ohm | Watt / Amp |
| Solve For Amps | Volt / Ohm | Watt / Volt | √Watt / Ohm |
| Solve For Ohms | Volt2 / Watt | Volt / Amp | Watt / Amp2 |
Speed of Light Is a Constant 299,792,458 Meters Per Second
Wavelength is represented in Meters as λ
Frequency is represented in Mega Hertz as f
Speed of Light c (300MM) / Frequency f (MHz) = Wavelength λ (Meters)
This is the basic formula to find full wavelength in meters for a given frequency.
Propagation
Electrical Components
Operating Procedures
ITU Radio Bands
| VLF | LF | MF | HF | VHF | UHF | SHF |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3 to 30 kHz | 30 to 300 kHz | 300 to 3 MHz | 3 to 30 MHz | 30 to 300 MHz | 300 to 3 GHz | 3 to 30 GHz |
Q Codes
For a full list of Q codes, see Wikipedia.
Q codes are a shorthand system used in amateur radio. They're primarily used when operating CW (Morse code), but some are also commonly used when operating phone (voice).
These are the most common Q codes you'll run into:
| As a question (followed by '?') | As a statement | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|
| QTH | What is your position? | My position is... | Typically used on voice. Example: "My QTH is New York." |
| QRZ | Who is calling me? | You are being called by... | Typically used on voice. During a "pileup", when multiple stations are trying to call one distant station, the distant station will ask "QRZ?" when he has finished working one station, so that the next station can give his call sign. |
| QRP | Shall I decrease my transmitter power? | Decrease transmitter power. | QRP also refers to the activity of running low-power stations. E.g.: "I'm QRP/I'm running QRP/I mainly run QRP." |
| QRS | Shall I send more slowly? | Send more slowly. | Only applicable to CW. |
These codes are specific to the Amateur Radio hobby
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| Code | Question | Answer or Statement |
|---|---|---|
| QLE | What is your expected signal? | The expected signal is low... |
| QNI | May I join the net? | You may check in... |
| QRA | What is the name (or call sign) of your station? | The name (or call sign) of my station is ... |
| QRG | Will you tell me my exact frequency (or that of ...)? | Your exact frequency (or that of ... ) is ... kHz (or MHz). |
| QRH | Does my frequency vary? | Your frequency varies. |
| QRI | How is the tone of my transmission? | The tone of your transmission is (1. Good; 2. Variable; 3. Bad) |
| QRJ | How many voice contacts do you want to make? | I want to make ... voice contacts. |
| QRK | What is the readability of my signals (or those of ...)? | The readability of your signals (or those of ...) is ... (1 to 5). |
| QRL | Are you busy? | I am busy. (or I am busy with ... ) Please do not interfere. |
| QRM | Do you have interference? [from other stations] | I have interference. |
| QRN | Are you troubled by static? | I am troubled by static. |
| QRO | Shall I increase power? | Increase power. |
| QRP | Shall I decrease power? | Decrease power. |
| QRQ | Shall I send faster? | Send faster (... wpm) |
| QRS | Shall I send more slowly? | Send more slowly (... wpm) |
| QRT | Shall I cease or suspend operation?/ shutoff the radio | I am suspending operation. /shutting off the radio |
| QRU | Have you anything for me? | I have nothing for you. |
| QRV | Are you ready? | I am ready. |
| QRW | Shall I inform ... that you are calling him on ... kHz (or MHz)? | Please inform ... that I am calling him on ... kHz (or MHz). |
| QRX | Shall I standby / When will you call me again? | Please standby / I will call you again at ... (hours) on ... kHz (or MHz) |
| QRZ | Who is calling me? | You are being called by ... on ... kHz (or MHz) |
| QSA | What is the strength of my signals (or those of ... )? | The strength of your signals (or those of ...) is ... (1 to 5). |
| QSB | Are my signals fading? | Your signals are fading. |
| QSD | Is my keying defective? | Your keying is defective. |
| QSG | Shall I send ... telegrams (messages) at a time? | Send ... telegrams (messages) at a time. |
| QSK | Can you hear me between your signals? | I can hear you between my signals. |
| QSL | Can you acknowledge receipt? | I am acknowledging receipt. |
| QSM | Shall I repeat the last telegram (message) which I sent you, or some previous telegram (message)? | Repeat the last telegram (message) which you sent me (or telegram(s) (message(s)) numbers(s) ...). |
| QSN | Did you hear me (or ... (call sign)) on .. kHz (or MHz)? | I did hear you (or ... (call sign)) on ... kHz (or MHz). |
| QSO | Can you communicate with ... direct or by relay? | I can communicate with ... direct (or by relay through ...). |
| QSP | Will you relay a message to ...? | I will relay a message to ... . |
| QSR | Do you want me to repeat my call? | Please repeat your call; I did not hear you. |
| QSS | What working frequency will you use? | I will use the working frequency ... kHz (or MHz). |
| QST | – | Here is a broadcast message to all amateurs. |
| QSU | Shall I send or reply on this frequency (or on ... kHz (or MHz))? | Send or reply on this frequency (or on ... kHz (or MHz)). |
| QSW | Will you send on this frequency (or on ... kHz (or MHz))? | I am going to send on this frequency (or on ... kHz (or MHz)). |
| QSX | Will you listen to ... (call sign(s) on ... kHz (or MHz))? | I am listening to ... (call sign(s) on ... kHz (or MHz)) |
| QSY | Shall I change to transmission on another frequency? | Change to transmission on another frequency (or on ... kHz (or MHz)). |
| QSZ | Shall I send each word or group more than once? | Send each word or group twice (or ... times). |
| QTA | Shall I cancel telegram (message) No. ... as if it had not been sent? | Cancel telegram (message) No. ... as if it had not been sent. |
| QTC | How many telegrams (messages) have you to send? | I have ... telegrams (messages) for you (or for ...). |
| QTH | What is your position in latitude and longitude (or according to any other indication)? | My position is ... latitude...longitude |
| QTR | What is the correct time? | The correct time is ... hours |
| QTU | At what times are you operating? | I am operating from ... to ... hours. |
| QTX | Will you keep your station open for further communication with me until further notice (or until ... hours)? | I will keep my station open for further communication with you until further notice (or until ... hours). |
| QUA | Have you news of ... (call sign)? | Here is news of ... (call sign). |
| QUC | What is the number (or other indication) of the last message you received from me (or from ... (call sign))? | The number (or other indication) of the last message I received from you (or from ... (call sign)) is ... |
| QUD | Have you received the urgency signal sent by ... (call sign of mobile station)? | I have received the urgency signal sent by ... (call sign of mobile station) at ... hours. |
| QUE | Can you speak in ... (language), – with interpreter if necessary; if so, on what frequencies? | I can speak in ... (language) on ... kHz (or MHz). |
| QUF | Have you received the distress signal sent by ... (call sign of mobile station)? | I have received the distress signal sent by ... (call sign of mobile station) at ... hours. |
Notes for response to radiotelegraph Q-codes: Responses to a radiotelegraph Q-code query or a Q-code assertion may vary depending upon the code. For Q-code assertions or queries which only need to be acknowledged as received, the usual practice is to respond with the letter "R" for "Roger" which means "Received correctly". Sending an "R" merely means the code has been correctly received and does not necessarily mean that the receiving operator has taken any other action. For Q-code queries that need to be answered in the affirmative, the usual practice is to respond with the letter "C" (Sounds like the Spanish word "Si"). For Q-code queries that need to be answered in the negative, the usual practice it to respond with the letter "N" for "no". For those Q-code assertions that merely need to be acknowledged as understood, the usual practice is to respond with the prosign SN or VE which means "understood". On telegraph cable networks "KK" was often used at the end of a reply to a Q Code to mean "OK" or "Acknowledged". This practice predates amateur radio as telegraph operators in the late 19th Century are known to have used it.
Radiograms
To ease congestion on the line, the ARRL has made numbered radiograms to summarize direct messages to other users. These also are primarily used on CW transmissions. Other services, including the US Military, and the police, have their own Radiogram systems that are incompatible with this. The ARRL has other forms of radiograms, but the numbered system is the most common. An example of this in practice would be saying CALLSIGN CALL CALLSIGN2 ARRL SIXTY TWO CHRISTMAS. These are what are more commonly known as "Brevity Codes"
| Codeword | Expansion |
|---|---|
| Group One—For Possible Relief Emergency Use | |
| ONE | Everyone safe here. Please don't worry. |
| TWO | Coming home as soon as possible. |
| THREE | Am in _____ hospital. Receiving excellent care and recovering fine. |
| FOUR | Only slight property damage here. Do not be concerned about disaster reports. |
| FIVE | Am moving to new location. Send no further mail or communication. Will inform you of new address when relocated. |
| SIX | Will contact you as soon as possible. |
| SEVEN | Please reply by Amateur Radio through the amateur delivering this message. This is a free public service. |
| EIGHT | Need additional _____ mobile or portable equipment for immediate emergency use. |
| NINE | Additional _____ radio operators needed to assist with emergency at this location. |
| TEN | Please contact _____. Advise to standby and provide further emergency information, instructions or assistance. |
| ELEVEN | Establish Amateur Radio emergency communications with _____ on _____ MHz. |
| TWELVE | Anxious to hear from you. No word in some time. Please contact me as soon as possible. |
| THIRTEEN | Medical emergency situation exists here. |
| FOURTEEN | Situation here becoming critical. Losses and damage from _____ increasing. |
| FIFTEEN | Please advise your condition and what help is needed. |
| SIXTEEN | Property damage very severe in this area. |
| SEVENTEEN | REACT communications services also available. Establish REACT communication with _____ on channel _____. |
| EIGHTEEN | Please contact me as soon as possible at _______. |
| NINETEEN | Request health and welfare report on _____. (State name, address and telephone number.) |
| TWENTY | Temporarily stranded. Will need some assistance. Please contact me at _____. |
| TWENTY ONE | Search and Rescue assistance is needed by local authorities here. Advise availability. |
| TWENTY TWO | Need accurate information on the extent and type of conditions now existing at your location. Please furnish this information and reply without delay. |
| TWENTY THREE | Report at once the accessibility and best way to reach your location. |
| TWENTY FOUR | Evacuation of residents from this area urgently needed. Advise plans for help. |
| TWENTY FIVE | Furnish as soon as possible the weather conditions at your location. |
| TWENTY SIX | Help and care for evacuation of sick and injured from this location needed at once. |
| Group Two—Routine Messages | |
| FORTY SIX | Greetings on your birthday and best wishes for many more to come. |
| FORTY SEVEN | Reference your message number _____ to _____ delivered on _____ at _____ UTC. |
| FIFTY | Greetings by Amateur Radio. |
| FIFTY ONE | Greetings by Amateur Radio. This message is sent as a free public service by ham radio operators at _______. Am having a wonderful time. |
| FIFTY TWO | Really enjoyed being with you. Looking forward to getting together again. |
| FIFTY THREE | Received your _______. It's appreciated; many thanks. |
| FIFTY FOUR | Many thanks for your good wishes. |
| FIFTY FIVE | Good news is always welcome. Very delighted to hear about yours. |
| FIFTY SIX | Congratulations on your _______, a most worthy and deserved achievement. |
| FIFTY SEVEN | Wish we could be together |
| FIFTY EIGHT | Have a wonderful time. Let us know when you return. |
| FIFTY NINE | Congratulations on the new arrival. Hope mother and child are well. |
| SIXTY | Wishing you the best of everything on _______. |
| SIXTY ONE | Wishing you a very Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. |
| SIXTY TWO | Greetings and best wishes to you for a pleasant _______ holiday season. |
| SIXTY THREE | Victory or defeat, our best wishes are with you. Hope you win. |
| SIXTY FOUR | Arrived safely at _______. |
| SIXTY FIVE | Arriving _______ on _______. Please arrange to meet me there. |
| SIXTY SIX | DX QSLs are on hand for you at the _______ QSL Bureau. Send _______ self addressed envelopes. |
| SIXTY SEVEN | Your message number _______ undeliverable because of _______. Please advise. |
| SIXTY EIGHT | Sorry to hear you are ill. Best wishes for a speedy recovery. |
| SIXTY NINE | Welcome to the _______. We are glad to have you with us and hope you will enjoy the fun and fellowship of the organization. |
Morse Code
Morse Code, also known as Continuous Wave (or CW) was once required for passing your test. It now is no longer required, but a good skill to have. Morse Code is easier to learn than you'd think. Each letter and number actually is based in the shape of the character. Learning this way is known as the Mnemonic method.
A person with satisfactory understanding has a WPM of about 30, while more advanced operators can have upwards to 90-110 WPM. Once you are an advanced user, you will no longer hear dits and das but you will hear the words as its own language.
Antennas
Antenna Math
Loop Antennas are full wavelength with one element.
c/f=λ Element Length
Dipoles are half wave with two elements.
c/f/2 = λ/2 Element Lengths
Ground Planes must be at least quarter wave with one vertical and four radial elements.
c/f/4 = λ Vertical Element Length
c/f/4 = λ Radial Element Lengths
3 Element Yagi Yagis are directional antennas consisting of a boom with reflector, driven, and director elements.
c/f = λ*.495 = Reflector Element Length
c/f = λ*.125 = Boom Separation Length
c/f = λ*.473 = Driven Element Length
c/f = λ*.125 = Boom Separation Length
c/f = λ*.440 = Director Element Length
Polarization
Feedlines
RG6 is common and cheap, but higher resistance at 75 Ohms. You should not use this.
RG58 is cheap, 50 Ohms, and perfectly acceptable for HF.
RG8X is slightly more expensive than RG58, but lower loss.
RG213 is double the price of RG58 and RG8X, but lower attenuation at higher frequencies.
RG8U is almost identical to RG213 in price and attenuation, but has lower loss per 100ft.
LMR400 is exceptional at higher frequencies as well as low. If your software radio can do 1GHz-6GHz, this is what you get.
Lightning Protection
If your antenna is outdoors, you should take precaution to prevent yourself and your gear from becoming dead. Metal antenna mounts should be grounded using 10 gauge insulated solid core copper wire. Your coax should have a lightning arrestor between the antenna and your equipment. The arrestor should be mounted near the lightning rod it's grounded to. To prevent moisture ingress, the arrestor and coax connectors should be placed in a plastic electrical box. If you have a wire dipole antenna, you should use ceramic insulators at both ends and guy rope to tie between two points.
